Ancient Amulet Rewrites History Of Christianity In Europe

Luke J. Wilson | 06th January 2025 | Archaeology

The discovery of an 1,800-year-old silver amulet in Frankfurt, Germany, has captured the attention of archaeologists and theologians alike. Known as the “Frankfurt Silver Inscription,” this artefact is the earliest known evidence of Christianity north of the Alps and serves as a great insight to early Christian theology and liturgical practice. Its early date (230–270 AD) sets it apart from previously known artefacts, which are at least 50 years younger. While there are historical references to Christian communities in Gaul and Upper Germania during the late 2nd century, reliable material evidence of Christian life in the northern Alpine regions generally only dates to the 4th century. This amulet offers new insights into the life and faith of early believers, revealing their theology, liturgical practices, and adaptation of existing traditions. 1. Invoking St. Titus: A Connection to Apostolic Roots One of the most remarkable features of the inscription is its invocation of St. Titus, a disciple and confidant of the Apostle Paul. This early reference highlights the theological importance of Apostolic authority and continuity. Titus, known for his leadership within the early church, symbolises the rootedness of Christian faith in the teachings and mission of the Apostles. In this context, the invocation of a saint also invites a deeper exploration of the “cult of saints,” a term scholars use to describe the veneration of saints within Christian tradition. The cult of saints became a significant aspect of Christian worship in the 4th and 5th centuries, with practices such as the commemoration of martyrs, the dedication of churches to saints, and the belief in their intercessory power. The earliest documented evidence of this practice, including the veneration of relics and the dedication of feast days, often centres on martyrs who bore witness to their faith during times of persecution. However, the invocation of St. Titus in the “Frankfurt Silver Inscription” predates these later developments by over a century, suggesting that the practice of seeking the intercession or spiritual protection of saints may have roots earlier than traditionally believed. This discovery contrasts with historical accounts that identify the late 3rd and early 4th centuries as the period when such practices began to gain prominence within the wider Christian community. As such, the amulet not only sheds light on early Christian devotion but also challenges prevailing assumptions about the origins and development of saintly veneration. Icon of Saint Titus 2. The Trisagion: Early Liturgical Development The phrase “Holy, holy, holy!” — known as the Trisagion — appears prominently in the inscription, marking one of the earliest recorded uses of this liturgical formulation in a Christian context. Though widely recognised in the 4th century, its presence here challenges traditional assumptions about the timeline of liturgical development. This suggests that elements of Christian worship, likely adapted from Jewish practices, were formalised earlier than previously thought. 3. Paul’s Christ Hymn: Scripture as the Foundation of Worship The inscription includes an almost verbatim quotation from Philippians 2:10–11: “At the name of Jesus every knee should bend, in heaven and on earth and under the earth, and every tongue should confess that Jesus Christ is Lord.” This demonstrates the early integration of Pauline theology into Christian liturgy and devotion. The explicit use of Holy Scripture highlights the centrality of Christ’s lordship in early Christian belief, even before the formal canonisation of the New Testament. 4. A Sacred Object for Protection and Proclamation The amulet, containing sacred text, was likely carried as a personal object of devotion and spiritual protection. Such items underscore the blend of Christian faith with ancient traditions of carrying protective talismans. This use of...

Luke J. Wilson | 13th May 2023 | Archaeology

I recently made a video on TikTok about what Jesus looks like in religious art and icons across various cultures, showing that people see Jesus as relatable to them and their people groups, and thus often depict Jesus looking the same as their own race. There was a comment made claiming that the Christ Pantocrator icon is exactly what Jesus looked like, and thus all others are wrong. If you’re wondering about the icon name, Pantocrator (Greek: Παντοκράτωρ) literally means “ruler of all”, but usually gets translated as “Almighty” or “all-powerful”. The oldest known icon of Christ Pantocrator,6th-century encaustic icon fromSaint Catherine’s Monastery, Mount Sinai The claim that we definitely know what Jesus looked like is an intriguing one, especially related to the Christ Pantocrator icon. This image, as far as we know, only exists in its oldest form from the 6th or 7th century. This particular icon was initially painted in Saint Catherine’s Monastery in Sinai, which was built in the late 6th century. Therefore, the image itself cannot be older than the monastery, at least not in this location. However, we have earlier icons of Jesus dating back to the 3rd and 4th century. One such example from the 4th century is a depiction of a woman being healed by touching the hem of Jesus’s robe. Jesus Healing a Bleeding Woman, c. 300–350 Interestingly, the older these images get, the more “Roman” Jesus tends to look. These Roman-like depictions often present Jesus as a younger, clean-shaven figure with short hair, which contrasts with the more traditional images that we’ve come to associate with Jesus — an older, bearded figure. In iconography, the beard and age often symbolises wisdom and the role of a teacher. On the other hand, the older Roman-like depictions tend to present Jesus as a typical person of the day, as seen by the artists of that time. Moving further back in time, we find depictions from the 3rd century, around the early to mid-200s. One particularly interesting image from this era portrays Jesus raising Lazarus from the dead. In this piece, and indeed, in other early Christian art pieces from this period, Jesus is rather shockingly depicted holding a wand while performing miracles! The Raising of Lazarus (fresco)by Paleo-Christian fresco Catacomb of theGiordani, Rome, Italy.© Held Collection out of copyright Experts in iconography explain this as a result of Roman converts to Christianity associating miraculous stories with magic. Consequently, in their depictions of these events, they represented Jesus with a wand to signify the miraculous or “magical” acts described in the stories and how Jesus performed them. Lee M. Jefferson of Centre College in Danville, Kentucky, wrote in his Biblical Archaeology article, “Jesus the Magician? Why Jesus Holds a Wand in Early Christian Art” (Autumn 2020): The implement that Jesus holds (sometimes called a virga or rabdos) is portrayed as either thick and ruddy, such as on the sarcophagi, or thin and reed-like, such as in catacomb paintings. He uses it in the performance of a miracle, leading several scholars to conclude that early Christians understood Jesus as a magician. The problem with this identification is that early Christians greatly maligned magic … For early Christians, Jesus performing miracles with the staff was not magical. Rather, it was intrinsically biblical (recalling Moses) and innately ecclesial (touting the supremacy of the Church) Another notable depiction from around 250 A.D, found in the Catacombs of Callixtus, presents Jesus as the Good Shepherd. Further along, in a place in Syria called Dura Europos, which is somewhat of a time capsule for archaeologists, we find the world’s oldest surviving church. Inside this church, there’s an image from around 232–235 A.D which depicts a synoptic gospel story of a paralytic being lowered through the roof for Jesus to heal. Again, in ...

Luke J. Wilson | 17th April 2023 | Archaeology

A scientist has reportedly uncovered an ancient translation containing sections of the Gospel of Matthew, believed to be the sole surviving evidence of the fourth manuscript supporting the Old Syriac version of the Gospels. The research team, which includes medieval expert Grigory Kessel from the Austrian Academy of Sciences (OeAW), employed ultraviolet imaging to reveal the ancient translation concealed beneath three layers of text. The research, published last month in the journal New Testament Studies, presents an interpretation of Matthew 11:30 to Matthew 12:26, initially translated as part of the Old Syriac translations around 1,500 years ago. According to the British Library, Syriac was an Eastern Aramaic dialect utilized by the Church in Syria and various Middle Eastern countries from the first century through the Middle Ages. While it used the same alphabet as Hebrew, the Syriac language featured distinct characters. The study indicates that the Gospel book was undoubtedly created no later than the sixth century. Comparisons with dated Syriac manuscripts help narrow the time frame to the first half of the sixth century. An OeAW statement released earlier this month reveals that the text was created in the third century and replicated in the sixth century. Over a millennium ago, an ancient Israeli scribe erased a Syriac Gospel book to repurpose it, since parchment was a rare resource in the desert during the Middle Ages and frequently reused. Kessel explains that Syriac Christianity encompasses multiple translations of the Old and New Testaments. Until recently, only two manuscripts containing the Old Syriac translation of the Gospels were known. The fragment of the translation of the New Testament is visible under UV light © Vatican Library   One of these fragments is housed at the British Library in London, while the second fragment, a "palimpsest" or reused manuscript that retains traces of its original form, was discovered at St. Catherine's Monastery on Mount Sinai. Kessel's identified fragment offers a "unique gateway" into the early phase of the Gospels' "textual transmission." The statement highlights, for example, that while the original Greek of Matthew 12:1 states: "At that time Jesus went through the grainfields on the Sabbath; and his disciples became hungry and began to pick the heads of grain and eat," the Syriac translation says: "[...] began to pick the heads of grain, rub them in their hands, and eat them." Claudia Rapp, director of the Institute for Medieval Research at the OeAW, commends Kessel for his discovery, attributing it to his "profound knowledge" of ancient Syriac texts and script features. Rapp estimates that the Syriac translation predates some of the oldest surviving Greek manuscripts, including the Codex Sinaiticus, by at least a century. The Codex Sinaiticus is a complete Gospel text, thought to be older than the fourth century. Rapp emphasizes the significance of combining modern digital technologies and basic research when examining medieval manuscripts, as demonstrated by this discovery. In February, The Christian Post reported the upcoming auction of the Codex Sassoon in May, possibly the earliest single codex containing all Hebrew Bible books. Created around 900, the book comprises 24 books split into three sections. The Hebrew Bible is fundamental to Christianity, Judaism, and Islam, with the 24 books comprising the canonical Hebrew Scriptures: the Torah, the Nevi'im, and the Ketuvim. Sotheby's, the fine arts company auctioning the manuscript, estimates it could fetch up to $50 million at the New York auction. Prior to the auction, the manuscript will tour major cities, including Tel Aviv, Israel, Dallas, and Los Angeles, granting the public an opportunity to view it. Further Reading Scientist discovers 'erased' 1,750-year-old Bible translation | World News (christianpost.com) NEW TESTAMENT: FRAGMENT OF 1,750-YEAR-OLD TRANSLATION DISCOVERED (oeaw.ac.a...

Luke J. Wilson | 26th March 2022 | Archaeology

On Thursday at ancient Shiloh, Dr. Scott Stripling, director of excavations for the Associates for Biblical Research (ABR), presented new findings which may well be one of the most significant discoveries in biblical archaeology in recent times! More than thirty years ago, Prof. Adam Zertal discovered a small lead amulet, only two centimetres square, from wet-sifting material taken from an excavation on Mount Ebal. This came from a square altar dated from the 13th century BC, which had been built on top of an older and circular altar. Prof. Zertal believed this was the same altar Joshua built when he entered the land of Israel: Josh. 8:30Then Joshua built on Mount Ebal an altar to the Lord, the God of Israel Dr. Stripling’s team rediscovered this in 2020, yet the metal amulet still remained a mystery. New technology enabled archeologists to read the ancient amulet The amulet was folded in half and had letters inscribed into the foil — but they were indecipherable and the metal was now too brittle to unfold without destroying the whole thing. Reaching out to a team of researchers in Prague, the ABR team had them use tomographic scans similar to medical CT scans to reveal the long hidden text. The scans revealed something very unexpected: an ancient proto-alphabetic Hebrew inscription composed of 40 letters! These are centuries older than any other known Hebrew inscription from ancient Israel and now challenge everything archaeologists and Biblical scholars thought they knew. Specialists in deciphering ancient texts, known as Epigraphers, Pieter Gert van der Veen of Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz and Gershon Galil of the University of Haifa, determined that the lead amulet was what is known as a defixio: a curse tablet. On the amulet, the word “cursed” appears 10 times, along with the tetragrammaton — the four letter name of God, YHWH in English. Below is the text of the amulet: Cursed, cursed, cursed — cursed by the God YHWH.You will die cursed.Cursed you will surely die.Cursed by YHWH — cursed, cursed, cursed. But the text of the amulet wasn’t the only revelation given. The excavated pottery which was with the amulet dated to the Iron Age I and Late Bronze Age, meaning that logically the tablet derived from one of these earlier periods. Dr. Stripling told The Jerusalem Post; I believe the amulet dates to the Late Bronze II age, or as early as 1400 BC. This is older than any Hebrew script that has ever been published by at least 200 years. This is earlier than many sceptics believe the Bible existed, making this the earliest appearance of the word YHWH in Israel and it was found at a covenant site. The implications are enormous and will reverberate for many years to come. Mount Ebal, where the amulet was found, was the mountain from which the curses were called out when the children of Israel made a covenant with God before entering the land of Israel, as seen in Deuteronomy 11:29: When the Lord your God has brought you into the land that you are entering to occupy, you shall set the blessing on Mount Gerizim and the curse on Mount Ebal. Pieter Gert van der Veen and Dr. Stripling both agree that this fits chronologically with the covenant renewal ceremony seen in the pages of the Bible. Gershon Galil said, “The amulet was intentionally left near this cultic site. My conclusion is that the biblical story of Joshua’s altar is a historical fact.” Scholars are at a near consensus that the Exodus and Israelites’ settlement in Canaan happened during the 13th century BC. But Dr. Stripling pointed out another implication brought on by this discovery, “This changes our timeline for the Exodus from Egypt and subsequent entry into Israel. The conquest would have had to take place at an earlier date”. Along with the amulet, they also discovered flat stones covered in plaster at the site of the altar. This is another confirmation for the Deuteronomy account: Deute...

Luke J. Wilson | 29th January 2025 | Easter

Pope Francis has recently expressed the Catholic Church’s willingness to accept a unified date for Easter, a move aimed at fostering greater Christian unity, particularly with the Orthodox Church. This long-standing issue arises from the different calendars used by Western and Eastern Christian traditions — the Gregorian and Julian calendars — leading to discrepancies in Easter celebrations. Talks between Catholic and Orthodox leaders have intensified, hoping a common date could be agreed upon. However, this raises important questions for Protestant denominations regarding whether they would adopt the unified date or risk falling out of alignment with these historic branches of Christianity. Celebrating the Week of Prayer for Christian Unity recently, Pope Francis noted that this year the Easter date coincides with the West’s Gregorian calendar and the East’s Julian calendar. The Pope said, “I renew my appeal that this coincidence may serve as an appeal to all Christians to take a decisive step forward toward unity around a common date for Easter.” “The Catholic Church is open to accepting the date that everyone wants: a date of unity” — Pope Francis The recent discussions between the Catholic and Orthodox churches regarding the unification of the Easter celebration date have some significant implications for Protestant denominations and as an Anglican, the wider Anglican Communion. Historically, the disparity in Easter dates has been a visible manifestation of Christian disunity, and efforts to establish a common date have been ongoing. Previous Attempts  In 2016, Archbishop of Canterbury Justin Welby expressed support for a fixed date for Easter, engaging in dialogues with leaders from various Christian traditions, including Pope Francis and Orthodox Patriarch Bartholomew. He emphasised the importance of unity in celebrating the resurrection of Christ and hoped for an agreement within a decade, or at least before he retired. Recently uncovered scandals forced him to retire earlier than planned, so that dream isn’t happening for him anymore. A long time ago here in the UK, an act of Parliament was passed in 1928 which allowed for Easter Sunday to be fixed on the first Sunday after the second Saturday in April. But this Act has never been activated and so Easter has remained a variable date, determined by the moon’s cycle. From an Anglican perspective, aligning the date of Easter with Catholic and Orthodox churches would be a significant ecumenical step, reflecting a commitment to Christian unity. The Anglican Communion, known for its via media (middle way) approach, often seeks to bridge differences between traditions. Therefore, it is plausible that the Anglican Church would support and adopt a unified Easter date, should an agreement be reached between the Catholic and Orthodox churches. I would at least expect the leadership to discuss it at Synod, and personally, I hope it would be accepted as a step towards global unity on our most important and significant celebration: the resurrection of Christ! For other Protestant denominations though, reactions may vary. Some may view the unification of the Easter date as a positive move towards greater Christian unity and choose to follow suit. Others, valuing their own traditions and independence (or anti-Catholic bias), might prefer to maintain their current practices as a variable date. The impact on Protestant denominations largely depends on their theological perspectives and openness to ecumenical initiatives. Ancient Controversies Before the Council of Nicaea in 325, different Christian communities celebrated Easter on different dates; the council decided that for the unity of the Christian community and its witness, Easter would be celebrated on the first Sunday after the first full moon after the spring equinox. This is known as the Quartodeciman (lit. Fourteenth) controversy. It’s called this due to the issue being over w...

Luke J. Wilson | 06th January 2025 | Archaeology

The discovery of an 1,800-year-old silver amulet in Frankfurt, Germany, has captured the attention of archaeologists and theologians alike. Known as the “Frankfurt Silver Inscription,” this artefact is the earliest known evidence of Christianity north of the Alps and serves as a great insight to early Christian theology and liturgical practice. Its early date (230–270 AD) sets it apart from previously known artefacts, which are at least 50 years younger. While there are historical references to Christian communities in Gaul and Upper Germania during the late 2nd century, reliable material evidence of Christian life in the northern Alpine regions generally only dates to the 4th century. This amulet offers new insights into the life and faith of early believers, revealing their theology, liturgical practices, and adaptation of existing traditions. 1. Invoking St. Titus: A Connection to Apostolic Roots One of the most remarkable features of the inscription is its invocation of St. Titus, a disciple and confidant of the Apostle Paul. This early reference highlights the theological importance of Apostolic authority and continuity. Titus, known for his leadership within the early church, symbolises the rootedness of Christian faith in the teachings and mission of the Apostles. In this context, the invocation of a saint also invites a deeper exploration of the “cult of saints,” a term scholars use to describe the veneration of saints within Christian tradition. The cult of saints became a significant aspect of Christian worship in the 4th and 5th centuries, with practices such as the commemoration of martyrs, the dedication of churches to saints, and the belief in their intercessory power. The earliest documented evidence of this practice, including the veneration of relics and the dedication of feast days, often centres on martyrs who bore witness to their faith during times of persecution. However, the invocation of St. Titus in the “Frankfurt Silver Inscription” predates these later developments by over a century, suggesting that the practice of seeking the intercession or spiritual protection of saints may have roots earlier than traditionally believed. This discovery contrasts with historical accounts that identify the late 3rd and early 4th centuries as the period when such practices began to gain prominence within the wider Christian community. As such, the amulet not only sheds light on early Christian devotion but also challenges prevailing assumptions about the origins and development of saintly veneration. Icon of Saint Titus 2. The Trisagion: Early Liturgical Development The phrase “Holy, holy, holy!” — known as the Trisagion — appears prominently in the inscription, marking one of the earliest recorded uses of this liturgical formulation in a Christian context. Though widely recognised in the 4th century, its presence here challenges traditional assumptions about the timeline of liturgical development. This suggests that elements of Christian worship, likely adapted from Jewish practices, were formalised earlier than previously thought. 3. Paul’s Christ Hymn: Scripture as the Foundation of Worship The inscription includes an almost verbatim quotation from Philippians 2:10–11: “At the name of Jesus every knee should bend, in heaven and on earth and under the earth, and every tongue should confess that Jesus Christ is Lord.” This demonstrates the early integration of Pauline theology into Christian liturgy and devotion. The explicit use of Holy Scripture highlights the centrality of Christ’s lordship in early Christian belief, even before the formal canonisation of the New Testament. 4. A Sacred Object for Protection and Proclamation The amulet, containing sacred text, was likely carried as a personal object of devotion and spiritual protection. Such items underscore the blend of Christian faith with ancient traditions of carrying protective talismans. This use of...

Luke J. Wilson | 17th April 2023 | Archaeology

A scientist has reportedly uncovered an ancient translation containing sections of the Gospel of Matthew, believed to be the sole surviving evidence of the fourth manuscript supporting the Old Syriac version of the Gospels. The research team, which includes medieval expert Grigory Kessel from the Austrian Academy of Sciences (OeAW), employed ultraviolet imaging to reveal the ancient translation concealed beneath three layers of text. The research, published last month in the journal New Testament Studies, presents an interpretation of Matthew 11:30 to Matthew 12:26, initially translated as part of the Old Syriac translations around 1,500 years ago. According to the British Library, Syriac was an Eastern Aramaic dialect utilized by the Church in Syria and various Middle Eastern countries from the first century through the Middle Ages. While it used the same alphabet as Hebrew, the Syriac language featured distinct characters. The study indicates that the Gospel book was undoubtedly created no later than the sixth century. Comparisons with dated Syriac manuscripts help narrow the time frame to the first half of the sixth century. An OeAW statement released earlier this month reveals that the text was created in the third century and replicated in the sixth century. Over a millennium ago, an ancient Israeli scribe erased a Syriac Gospel book to repurpose it, since parchment was a rare resource in the desert during the Middle Ages and frequently reused. Kessel explains that Syriac Christianity encompasses multiple translations of the Old and New Testaments. Until recently, only two manuscripts containing the Old Syriac translation of the Gospels were known. The fragment of the translation of the New Testament is visible under UV light © Vatican Library   One of these fragments is housed at the British Library in London, while the second fragment, a "palimpsest" or reused manuscript that retains traces of its original form, was discovered at St. Catherine's Monastery on Mount Sinai. Kessel's identified fragment offers a "unique gateway" into the early phase of the Gospels' "textual transmission." The statement highlights, for example, that while the original Greek of Matthew 12:1 states: "At that time Jesus went through the grainfields on the Sabbath; and his disciples became hungry and began to pick the heads of grain and eat," the Syriac translation says: "[...] began to pick the heads of grain, rub them in their hands, and eat them." Claudia Rapp, director of the Institute for Medieval Research at the OeAW, commends Kessel for his discovery, attributing it to his "profound knowledge" of ancient Syriac texts and script features. Rapp estimates that the Syriac translation predates some of the oldest surviving Greek manuscripts, including the Codex Sinaiticus, by at least a century. The Codex Sinaiticus is a complete Gospel text, thought to be older than the fourth century. Rapp emphasizes the significance of combining modern digital technologies and basic research when examining medieval manuscripts, as demonstrated by this discovery. In February, The Christian Post reported the upcoming auction of the Codex Sassoon in May, possibly the earliest single codex containing all Hebrew Bible books. Created around 900, the book comprises 24 books split into three sections. The Hebrew Bible is fundamental to Christianity, Judaism, and Islam, with the 24 books comprising the canonical Hebrew Scriptures: the Torah, the Nevi'im, and the Ketuvim. Sotheby's, the fine arts company auctioning the manuscript, estimates it could fetch up to $50 million at the New York auction. Prior to the auction, the manuscript will tour major cities, including Tel Aviv, Israel, Dallas, and Los Angeles, granting the public an opportunity to view it. Further Reading Scientist discovers 'erased' 1,750-year-old Bible translation | World News (christianpost.com) NEW TESTAMENT: FRAGMENT OF 1,750-YEAR-OLD TRANSLATION DISCOVERED (oeaw.ac.a...

Luke J. Wilson | 07th October 2022 | Jeffrey Dahmer

There’s a new Netflix documentary out at the moment which has hit the news recently about the infamous serial killer Jeffery Dahmer. I haven’t watched it, but I knew of him as a serial killer though I didn’t realise just how horrific his crimes were until I read the Wikipedia article about him! Not for the faint of heart, that’s for sure. But this post isn’t really about Dahmer, not entirely, but rather the reactions to some recent social media posts about him and the (often vitriol) responses they’ve got. Here’s one example: Dahmer is probably in heaven and experiencing eternal joy. If this bothers you, you don’t know the depths of your own depravity or the price paid for his forgiveness. — Eriq Jäger (@MilkToastOnRye) September 27, 2022 Now, a little context in case you are unaware: Dahmer professed faith in Jesus, repented and was baptised while in prison. The minister who baptised him, Roy Ratcliff, also met with him weekly for one-hour Bible studies and pastoral care. He even wrote a book about the experience and was convinced his conversion was genuine. I’m going to state something off the back of this which will no doubt offend some, but it is for this reason that Paul says the truth of the Gospel is offensive: If you can’t accept that Jeffrey Dahmer could be welcomed into the Kingdom of God, then you don’t understand the Gospel.   Does the idea that a homosexual, cannibalistic, murdering rapist could be forgiven by God cause you some discomfort? I’ll be honest, when I first considered something like this many years ago, it did cause me to have a knee-jerk reaction against it. I understand the apprehension. We want people like him to burn in hell for all eternity. But let me say it like this: if Dahmer can’t be saved, then neither can you (or me). Or do you think you are “better” or “good enough” for salvation and Dahmer isn’t? If you do think this, then, again, you don’t understand the Gospel or God’s grace.   Many Christians are aware of Paul’s words in Romans 3:23: “all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God”. I often see this quoted online as inspirational images and posters, or as a way to explain human failings, since no one can live up to what God requires of us through our own efforts. But when you apply this to a repentant murderer, suddenly it’s no longer valid? That’s not how grace works. Look at the surrounding context; Paul makes it abundantly clear that there are no exceptions — for falling short or being saved by grace: …the righteousness of God through faith in Jesus Christ for all who believe. For there is no distinction, since all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God; they are now justified by his grace as a gift, through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus… (Rom 3:22–24, emphasis mine) There is no distinction: we have all sinned and we can all be justified by grace. All we need to do is place our faith in Jesus and his finished work on the cross. The Apostle Paul knew the depth of this grace well for he was also “breathing threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord” (Acts 9:1) when hunting down Christians and approving of Stephen’s martyrdom (Acts 8:1). Paul acknowledges his sin but recognises that God saved him as a testimony to the abundant goodness and mercy of God, so that if even Paul can be saved, then so can anyone. 1 Timothy 1:16But I received mercy for this reason, so that in me, the worst of them, Christ Jesus might demonstrate His extraordinary patience as an example to those who would believe in Him for eternal life. Jeffrey Dahmer was definitely “the worst of them”, yet not beyond the reach of our ever-loving saviour, Christ Jesus. I understand the human desire to want to see the vilest of people punished or condemned to hellfire, and even the Apostles and other believers were wary of Paul’s conversion and claim to have faith, understandably so. “...